Comparative business cultures Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Comparative business cultures - Assignment Example (Mansfield & Pevehouse, 2000) A multicultural organization consists mainly of 6 key features namely pluralism, structural incorporation, complete amalgamation of unofficial networks, elimination of discrimination and prejudice, equivalent recognition of organizational objectives with all the diverse teams and nominal amount of inter-team conflicts (Cox, 1991). Learned behavior and their consequences been shared or transmitted via those members of the society. (Linton, 1954) Certain companies have created an organizational architecture and model of business behavior which seems innovative in its design and is unparalleled in business (Cole 1995). The purpose of the study is to ensure that the contribution of human behavior is towards the organizational growth which enables to achieve greater efficiency. (Scholte, 2005) Malaysian culture of business is quite different than other Asian countries like china, India, japan etc. (Beeson, 2000) Features of Multicultural Organization: In the following paragraph we are going to discuss about all the six features of a multicultural organization – Pluralism  refers to the mixed group of members in an organization and it also means taking proper measures to involve all the employees entirely that are different in terms of the central group dominating the organization.. There are a number of options for practicing acculturation within the organization, among which the most well-known being: 1. An unilateral procedure by which members of the minority culture take on the values and norms of the principal group within the workplace (this is called assimilation); 2. A course of action by which both majority and minority members of different cultural backgrounds accept some customs and rules of the other group (this is known as pluralism); 3. A state of affairs where there is modest scope of variation from each of the culturally different groups (this situation is referred to as cultural separatism). 4. Diversity trainin g—managerial endeavor to inform and instruct administration and employee about diversity’s advantages to the organization (Kreitz, 2007) The concept of acculturation on the other hand is related to the cultural (customs and attitudes) characteristic of amalgamation of the diverse teams, as contrasting to simply make themselves physically available in the same setting (Buenker & Ratner, 2005, pp.18-20). Full structural integration:  An organization generally comprises of people from various backgrounds and different locations. This involves dealing out with educational specializations and the variations in expertise and treating those evenly all through the organization. Full integration of informal networks:  integration in informal networks in a multicultural organization is fostered through supervising and mentoring programs, particular social occasions and sustaining the cultural groups for the minorities. This element focuses on the stages of enclosure of the m inority-culture employees in lunch/dinner gatherings, athletic and golf outings, and social associations conducted and repeated by organizational managers. It also takes into account the facets of counseling and several other informal developmental aspects within organizations. (Taggart & McDermott 1993) Absence of Prejudice: Any kind of prejudice or bias is

Construction of femininity Essay Example for Free

Construction of femininity Essay The very titles of both plays, Gertrude, The Cry and Ophelia Thinks Harder offer the grounds for the presumption that the central theme is related to a woman. Furthermore, in the light of postmodernism one may presuppose to read the revisionary approach on the womans question. Now when Gertrude and Ophelia have become the archetypes, their reading in the postmodernist works gives the possibility to understand the principles of the latest tendencies of the literature. The play expresses the modern understanding of Hamlet by throwing the light upon the subjects that were left enigmatic by Shakespeare. Reading the archetypes in the modern adaptations allow a better understanding of postmodernism. The study’s focus is the representations of Shakespearean Hamlet women in the modern plays. Despite a series of transgressive forms of language in both literary pieces (in particular in Barkers), the plain-spoken parody on the original play, the focus on the problem and the atmosphere of femininity appear close to original Shakespeare. The atmosphere around femininity in both plays seem more authentic to the heroes of original Hamlet that for example in the representations of 19th [1] century when the femininity was a cult and the femininity of Ophelia was the idyllic example. Is it the genius of Shakespeare to create a play that seems to have constantly the necessity to be unveiled? Is it the work of poststructuralist philosophers that influenced the postmodern authors to re-understand the women in Shakespeares literature? Has the urgency of rethinking of the female role through rethinking the femininity finally found its proper reflection in the fiction? Of course, Gertrude and Ophelia represent different and sometimes quite the opposite female types. Gertrude is in her maturity while Ophelia is in her puberty. This difference gives the opportunity to study the whole picture of femininity on different levels. To make the picture complete, both authors introduce new feminine characters. In order not to eclipse Gertrude, Barker omits Ophelia in his adaptation; however he introduces Isola, Claudius mother and Ragusa, somewhere at Ophelias place. As for Betts, there are Maid and Virgin Mary; however the plot is formed in a way that to the end of the play there are more female characters than male. Gertrude and Ophelia characters symbolize the eternal problems that women are facing. Different as they are, they always converge. And the study of both of them is necessary for this course of effort to bring the answers to the questions raised above. The philosophical debates over essentialism and femininity, the problems of gender, the rethinking of its ontological construction, the post-structuralism and the deconstruction have been largely introduced in the course of the 20th century [2]. Although, they have some differences in approach, commonly they agree that the femininity is to be socially constructed. It is rather clear that both postmodern writings of Barker and Betts could possibly not disregard these approaches when writing on women. Moreover they are industriously participating in the debates. For example, the plot Ophelia Thinks Harder is explicitly under-wound on gender construction. Barker is focusing more on the relation of femininity and the power. Betts claim on Queen: â€Å"We have to work at being women (Queen,3,17) highlights the coercive nature of femininity and can recall one the Beauvoir’s famous claim that one is not born, but rather becomes a woman[3]. Femininity construction in the conventional understanding is regarded as the the art that [all the heterosexual women] must master(Queen, Scene 3, p. 16). It is quite natural that all the compulsory is to be criticized in the western democratic society. However the femininity is compelled so slight and subtle that one can possibly not be aware of it. But the outcome of this compelled femininity can be more dangerous to the point that one can believe and can touch all the levels of human being. This is what this study will attempt to highlight in this work. It is sad to mark that this is the prevailing philosophy as for gender problems finds its supporters mainly in the homosexual ranges. [4] With all my respect for the diversity, in some cases it is like Barkers Hamlet who will write the Book of Love whilst having never oh not ever loved (Hamlet, Scene 13, p. 55). While the heterosexual women suffer of so many not less urgent problems of no solution. What is the role for example of the philosophy on gender, treating the problems of femininity in the issue of domestic violence. A 1992 Council of Europe study on domestic violence against women found that one in four women experience domestic violence over their lifetimes, 400 hundred women die because of their partner’s violence every year [5]. Generally speaking, the contemporary philosophical orientation is hardly finding something constructive to propose at least for heterosexual women leaving the contradiction unresolved. Efrat Tseelon criticizes the modern authors regarding the womans question in The Masque of Femininity: â€Å"My claim is that this tradition covers very different theoretical explanations. It ranges from mythological and theological descriptions which define the essence of a woman as dissimulation, to psychoanalytic accounts and contemporary social theory which define the essence of femininity as an inessential social construction[6]. Majority of the postmodern writers and philosophers, who are focusing on femininity, give the answers principally on the deconstruction of gender. Some tendencies for internationalized feminism take into consideration the women of the third world situations as highly appreciable [7]. However, similar problems in the western society do not have the sufficient treat. Even if theories exist, they are too difficult to adopt in real life for the heterosexual majority of women as it is proved in Ophelia Thinks Harder. In this context literary works treating questions concerning women again become more important. They are indispensable in understanding femininity in modern terms. Inasmuch as studying them contributes to the working on the consciousness. And it is due to the quality of the literature independent of the conventional construction or philosophical trends and largely contributing into both, to intersect the theory and the real life. Whereas Howard Barker’s intentions are rather cryptic, Jean Betts provides the both in her work: her work is full of incomparable imagination, she provides the historical and philosophical data from Aristotle to Queen Elizabeth and the outline of Christian thought over femininity and she evokes for the representations of women in all the dimensions. Of course such approach helps her preliminarily to put some light on the original character of Shakespearean Ophelia by the introduction of the thought on femininity in the period when Shakespeare created Ophelia, the post-Elizabethan period, the beginning of the 17th century. This information in the guise of fiction makes apparent the true reason of Shakespearean Ophelias collapse. Women were regarded as physiologically â€Å"failed men† as a product of incomplete development caused by insufficient generative heat in the womb. They were seen as the effeminate man, the aberrations of effeminacy. Womans sexuality was thought of almost a separate organism within the woman, with a will – womb[8]. Calling back to these perversions in the postmodernist frame allows the reader to question the hegemonic cultural discourse of nowadays. Whereas Betts is trying in her own words to help to dismantle some of the foundations of this deeply buried prejudice against women, (Writers Notes, Ophelia Thinks Harder), Barker is focusing more on the sexuality of the femininity as the power and the tragic outcome of the excess of the femininity and feminine sexuality. He questions the verity of the sexual feminine liberation and if it really liberates the woman. Undoubtedly a certain sexual feminine liberation has become a part of the conventional construction of femininity. However, there is no seamless category of conventional femininity, no for femininity as there is no seamless category for the woman. The very subject of women is no longer understood in stable or abiding terms[9]. The best possible definition for the conventional femininity gives Betts’s Gertrude: display her wares youll dazzle them all a fantastical cosmetic and corset fitting process; e. g. Eyebrow plucking, leg waxing, arm oiling, nails, garish face mask, fierce corsetry, grossly padded bra, chastity belt, etc You will delight, but not over-excite. a pure sweet, submissive little virgin The conventional femininity is double-faced. Having Chaste Mary as an ideal, the feminine best culmination is â€Å"to play the cards right. What Ragusa has actually performed. † marriage is the greatest moment in a womans life to be a bride the day of all days † (Ragusa, Scene 15, p. 63). Trying her best to construct the feminine self, she married Hamlet and inherited the throne after his death. Ophelias Mother suggests: â€Å"women are treacherous, sly, scheming, deceitful †. Even making children in the conventional understanding of the femininity is corresponded to please or manipulate man: â€Å"They want kids, do it. They dont – well come to me and Ill help you when the time comes. ; A woman with a son is powerful. (Queen, Scene 3, p. 17; 19) However, in the original version Gertrude had nothing but sufferance and the collapse of her life because of her son, who did not accept her mode of life. The response is paradoxically given by the same all feminine Betts Gertrude: -and we are inconsiderate enough not to give a shit what driveling adolescents like you think. (Queen, Scene 7, p. 54). Of course, Barkers power of Gertrude is certainly far from her bearing a son. Unmasking the masquerade Insomuch as the womans question is to be read the titles of both plays, the unthought-of before or rethought (thinks harder) and a sore utterance of the extreme feelings (the cry) are manifesting. Shakespearean women thus have a chance to cry out their repressed truths. It is absolutely normal when taking in consideration the historic-cultural context of the role of gender in the Shakespearean period that women like Gertrude and Ophelia, were shown and identified by their relation to men. It is of the great achievements of Shakespeare to draw the remarried widow as the tragic hero when for playwrights of the early modern period, a remarrying widow was a subject for comedy[10]. Today, in the light of deconstruction, what was identified as the feminine can turn to be masculine and vice-versa theoretically [11]. Practically, the process of choosing the gender is not without the desperate torments. The femininity as the obstruction to the knowledge in Betts version and the extreme feminine sexuality of as the pseudo pluck of the apple of forbidden knowledge in Barkers are the central themes in the plays. Betts Ophelia hence thinks harder than the original Shakespearean one. What does this possibility to think or to rethink presents for the female? Shakespearean Ophelia’s life was predicated by what men around her thought. Her father and brother decided how she should behave herself. Hamlet’s refusal of her was fatal. Betts offers Ophelia the choice to think herself for her life, what will it turn to? As for Gertrude, will her cry hush the desperate attempts of Hamlet to de-sexualize her? Is the cry the horror and sexual pleasure of her femininity or does it stand over female and masculine categories? Modern Shakespeare suggests that Gertrudes flagrancy, her over sexualized femininity cost the life of another feminine innocent Ophelia [12]. Indeed desire and death go traditionally together as proved above, but what is the place of the femininity in desire? Even if it is true, why should the feminine sexual desire be identified with femininity? And why should the masculine desire excuse itself by femininity? In Betts rewriting, Ophelia is in the same cultural context, the oppressed woman, the same â€Å"mad fool† (Queen, 7, 52) boyfriend Hamlet. It should therefore come as no surprise, that her desperate attempts of thinking meet the terrible attacks from all the members of the society. To condemn these attempts on failure, they take an argument that thinking is not feminine, accusing Ophelia of not being feminine. Throughout the play Betts is proving that the imposed conventional femininity is an instrument to prevent the woman to think. She focuses in particular on why thinking for a woman is so dangerous in the conventional understanding. The power stands for the explanation and certainly not a psychotic clown who sets the rules. The power serves as the relationship between individuals. The one who possesses the knowledge possesses the power. Isn’t after overcoming the conventional femininity and get educated that: â€Å"we dress up to learn, to write, to get published be lawyers, doctors, lead armies, run countries † (RG, Scene 8) that the gender war is foreseen to happen: â€Å"I see strife; I see gender war; I see the initial X†(First Woman 4, 26). At first glance, Barkers Gertrude possesses the power. She is evidently more delighted with her sexual power than the political one that she posses with her statute of the queen. From her comes out the cry, the extreme point of ever possible desire and pleasure and of horror. The extreme desire is always conventionally associated with sin as well as with feminine. This is evident in the story of Adam and Eve, the first man and woman. The first sin has become sexualized with Eve’s violation of God’s specific instruction [13] The Cry is like the reproduction of the first sentiment that the new sinful world lived: the desire and the horror. Gertrude possesses this cry. Is the extreme femininity the way to posses the cry or does it come out of the brain that has no binary category? â€Å"MY BRAIN IS WHERE DESIRE IS† (Hamlet 5, 28) Where is the place of the intellect in the conventional construction of the femininity? Knowledge and desire go together. As mentioned above was it not for the desire of knowledge that the first sin occurred? Therefore, knowledge is interpreted as unnatural to female. As the epigraph to Ophelia Thinks Harder proposes: Laborious learning or painful pondering, even if woman should greatly succeed in it, destroy the merits that are proper to her sex (Kant). In the course of all these tormenting moments of thinking, Betts’ Ophelia is read as what is in the psychoanalytic terms called bisexual: not feminine, not masculine. At least she is resisting to become feminine. Before getting down on why she is refusing the conventional femininity, one should clearly make the difference between the biological sex and the socially constructed femininity or masculinity. Freud claims that the child is born bisexual and femininity or masculinity is constructed [14]. Following the psychological steps related to his parents the child develops his/her masculinity/femininity. Then as it is developing it is influenced by the socio cultural frames. Together with the theory of deconstruction they would consider us to read Ophelia bisexual. Indeed she claims that she does not want to be the man, nor the woman (Scene 3, 17). However her bisexuality is also determined by the social frames. She does not want not to be the man, nor the woman because she does not want to be seen like conventional feminine or masculine. The conventional understanding of the femininity does not correspond to her individuality. Hence, she is refusing the conventional notion of being feminine: â€Å"Behavior as instinctive as a cats with a bird † (Hamlet, Scene 1, p. 3); â€Å" viper like Eve would arouse in him evil and lust (Hamlet, Scene 4, p. 29) or â€Å"The lady doth protest too much†(III,ii,225) She is refusing to be tough and try to corrupt the man she is not. She is refusing to be tough to be overwhelmed with her sexuality as something shameful. â€Å" Hormones, cycles of blood, reproductive turmoil-you are flushed with your female destiny-you are adulated, euphoric-yes-you are clearly in love † (Hamlet, Scene 1, p. 3). If choosing gender in the natural way is as impossible as it was in the original version and if we know that the femininity is rooted in the social construction is it left to the society to decide if she becomes a normal woman [feminine]? Is there a solution to stand out the opinion of the society? On one hand Barkers Gertrude is independent from the societys opinion, on the other she is strongly dependent on others, as she needs to astonish. The conflict in Ophelia Thinks Harder lies in Ophelia’s resistance to the psychic subordination of the conventional. Being female, according to the social conventions her body must be superior to her mind, while the masculinity would be gifted with mind and femininity with body. Ophelia is forced to be separated from her mind and to delight and be delighted by her feminine body. She is not abnormal or exceptional. â€Å"The thousands of us† (Scene 8, p. 66) had to disguise as men to be disjoined from their minds. Judith Butler is decisive upon Beauvoir proposal that the female body ought to be the situation and the instrumentality of the womans freedom, not a defining and limiting essence [15]. She writes: â€Å"In the philosophical tradition that begins with Plato and continues through Descartes, Husserl, and Sartre, the ontological distinction between soul (consciousness, mind) and body invariably supports relations of political and psychic subordination and hierarchy†. While Betts uncovers the diverse and dissimilar states of female’s self-construction, Barker is focusing on the exploration of the body. Helen Cixous is speaking about the writing of the female body [16]. Quite in a similar way, Barker is studying the possibility of â€Å"learning to approach their [womens] own forbidden bodies†. Indeed one can mark the parallel even in the titles with The Laughter of Medusa and Gertrude The Cry. Barkers Gertrude claim â€Å"I’ve made an instrument out of my body (Scene 14, p. 62). Gertrude explores and perceives the knowledge through the possibilities of her body. Of course Barker has not invented that Gertrude is exploring her sexuality. Shakespearean theme is also read in Betts: â€Å"it may come as a shock, little boy, but quite a lot a lot of people over 30 fondle each other. Oh yes; Claudius and I HAVE SEX. (Queen, Scene 7, p. 54).

Cervical Cancer Major Public Health Issue Health And Social Care Essay

Cervical Cancer Major Public Health Issue Health And Social Care Essay Introduction Cervical cancer is a major public health issue; it is the second most common cancer among women in the world, and one of leading cause of death by gynaecologic malignant tumour in developing countries. (I. Shahramian and colleagues 2011) Besides, cervical cancer is one of the most preventable and curable cancer when it is detected early, and this is due to its slow progression, since it take several years to grow from a detectable precursor lesion. This key feature provides a large window of about ten years or more for effective early detection of the precancerous lesion, and preventing its progression to invasive cancer. From this perspective, well organised prevention approaches have been applied by high income countries over the past 50 years, and have resulted in a remarkable decline in morbidity and mortality from this invasive disease. The screening program is a successful example for effective prevention from cervical cancer, it has been used in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland and Sweden); this program was examined by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1960s and it was found that the mortality rate in these countries fell by about three- fourth, The most drastic decrease was marked in Iceland by 84 % and this was due to the wide target age range for screening in this country.(whomb people) However, over the same period, developing countries have failed through using the same program to reduce the burden of the disease, and cervical cancer continues to menace the lives of thousands of women, this may be due to the lack of an effective prevention strategy. We will try in this paper to review the determinants of cervical cancer screening among Algerian women, to elucidate the salient barriers regarding screening and to highlight the principal factors influencing the individual health behaviour, for this study, we will use the Health Belief Model as a conceptual framework, we will explain the structure of the Health Belief Model (Becker) and how the different constructs of the model could predict the womens health behaviour regarding cervical neoplasm screening , finally the application of this model as a guiding framework to ground behavioural interventions and to improve attitude of women regarding cancer screening will be discussed. Epidemiology of cervical cancer/ global burden of the disease Global overview Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second most common cause of death among women (ACCP2004) with an estimate of 493,000 new cases, and 274,000 deaths occurring every year according to the statistics of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (GLOBOCAN, 2002) In 2008, 530000 new cases were diagnosed, more than 85% of the global burden were registered in developing countries (where it remains the most common cancer seen in women and it accounts for 13% of all female cancers), In the same year, the cervical cancer was responsible for 275000 deaths, about 88% of which occurred in developing countries 53000 cases in Africa, 31700 in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 159000 cases in Asia. (GLOBOCAN 2008) The figure below shows incidence of cervical cancer by country, it should be noted that data from developing countries might be underestimated as the official statistics in these countries are not reliable. http://globocan.iarc.fr/factsheets/cancers/cervix-bar.png Regional overview Algeria is a large North African country, extended from the Mediterranean Sea down to the Sahara, with about 37 million inhabitants. Algeria has a population of 11,51millions of women whose ages are 15 years and older, (WHO/ICO2010) which means that about the third of the Algerian population is at risk of developing cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among Algerian women after the breast cancer, Current estimates indicate that every year 1398 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer and 797 die from the disease (WHO/ICO2010) About 10, 5% of Algerian women are estimated harbour cervical HPV, and about 77, 1% of cervical cancers in Algeria are related to HPV 16 or 18. (WHO/ICO 2010) But we should note that even these statistics might be underestimated, The economic impact of cervical cancer is significantly heavy for the state. The treatment of a single patient returns to about 2.5 million dinars (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 20,000), with this cost we we can achieve 2000 smears (smear test cost 20 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬) and vaccinate 30 women. Natural history of cervical cancer Understanding the process of developing cervical cancer is a crucial step to design an effective program of prevention. More than 99% cases of cervical cancer are attributed to cervical HPV infection, which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD), the virus is acquired by both men and women through sexual activity, the infection is usually asymptomatic and transient. HPV is the most common STD in the world; it affects about 50% to 80% of sexually active women at least once in their lifetime ( ACCP 2004), they contract it in their teen, 20 or early 30s. There are more than 100 genotypes of HPV that have been identified, and which are numbered by order of their discovery, about 13 types can lead to invasive cervical cancer and they are known as high oncogenic risk ( 16,18,31,33,35,39,45,51,52,56,58,59,66) (WHO 2007) The two most common are 16 and 18 causing approximately 70% of all invasive cervical carcinoma (60% related to HPV 16 and 10% to HPV 18) the whom people The others types of HPV are known as low risk and they usually associated with genital warts (especially 6 and 11) which can grow in the genital part in both men and women (cervix, anus, vulva, vagina, penis, and scrotum) and they cause a significant morbidity.( WHO2007), They are very rarely associated with cervical cancer, but can lead to low grade changes in cervical cells which are very similar to those caused by high risk types. These low lesions are asymptomatic and temporary, however, in some circumstances can evolve and lead to high lesion or invasive cancer. Table: summarizes the different stages leading to cervical cancer ( ACCP2004) HPV infection Low-grade lesions High-grade lesions Invasive cancer HPV infection is extremely common among women of reproductive age. The infection can persist, lead to cervical abnormalities, or resolve on its own. Low-grade lesions are usually temporary and disappear over time. Some cases, however, progress to high-grade lesions. High-grade lesions, the precursor to cervical cancer, are significantly less common than low-grade lesions. High- grade lesions can develop from low-grade ones or directly from persistent HPV infection. Invasive cancer develops over the course of several years and is most common among women in their 50s and 60s. Source: Adapted from PATH 2000. HPV is a necessary cause but not sufficient to progress from HPV infection to invasive cervical cancer, there are other lifestyle factors that increase the probability to develop the cancer including high parity, young age at first delivery, being in polygamous marriage, women with husbands extramarital sexual relationship (D. Hammouda and colleagues 2004, 2011), long term use of oral contraception, tobacco smoking, certain dietary deficiencies, poor sanitation, multiple sex partner, low socio economic status, and living in a rural environment. In addition, co-infection with HIV, Chlamydia Trachomatis, and Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV 2)., ( whomb people) HPV was incriminated in many other anogenital cancer (anus, vulva, vagina, and penis) and cancers of the head and neck. Understanding that HPV is the primary underlying cause of cervical cancer has focused attention on the potential of early detection of the infection through the cervical screening. Screening for cervical cancer is based on the use of the Papanicolaou cytology technic (Pap smear test) in which physicians or nurses expose the cervix by speculum and remove cells from the squamous epithelium and transformation zone to detect abnormal precancerous cells. The American College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology suggest that women should receive the first screening test 3 years after the first sexual intercourse They also recommend that women should continue receiving cytology screening yearly until the age of 30, from than they can receive it every 3 years. According to the same college, menopausal women have a lower chance to develop abnormal cervical cells; however, there is no upper age limit to stop the screening. ( Whom people) Primary prevention have focused on hygiene and reducing risks factor by reducing the number of sexual partners and encouraging the use of barrier contraceptive especially condoms,( ACCP2004) Recently a new vaccine which has the potential to protect against certain type of HPV infection (16 and 18) has been licensed to underpin the preventive program against cervical cancer. The vaccine has been used in many developed countries and shown great results in reducing the burden of the disease, but it has not been introduced in Algeria yet Pap smear as a cervical cancer screening test Algeria is one of the developing countries where cervical cancer remains a major health public issue. although the application of screening program, a large population remain under screened, the outcome are very modest and the incidence of cervical cancer is always high and this could be contributed to the lack of awareness about screening test among women and some specific cultural health beliefs barriers, not surprisingly that large proportion of the patients are diagnosed with advanced stage of the invasive cervical cancer, interestingly, even most of the health care providers have never had a pap smear.( ref risk factor ). Studies show that comprehensive cervical cancer screening is modest in low resources countries; hence a low participation in Pap smear and a low follow up when it is done the first time. It has been stated that screening program in these countries and even among minorities and aboriginal women faced many obstacles; lack of sufficient laboratory infrastructure, high cost of health care, inadequate trained health care providers, absence of providers recommendation and a lack of appropriate educational programs in these countries that indicate the risk factors of this disease, the importance of screening at early stage, and the power of the Pap smear test to detect the disease in its premalignant stage and so the possibility of full cure and prevention. (S.T. Tavafian 2012) In addition to these funds and human resources deficiencies that can hindrance an effective and organised screening intervention, there is also the lack of knowledge from the patients regarding preventable cervical cancer as well as the socio-cultural status barriers , such as embarrassment from pelvic examination that have been argued as one of leading obstacle to not receiving screening test,(S.T. Tavafian 2012) another factor is the fear of subject and the entrenched belief that cancer cannot be cured , the lack of optimal knowledge about screening practices ; this extreme fatalistic attitude about cancer among different countries lead women to consider diagnosis as a death sentence and so the avoidance of the test,(V.Thomas and colleagues 2005) there is also projects identified religious beliefs, the limited language ability as another major perceived barrier, the lack of social support, the low socio economic status and the inadequate functional health literacy. There is a study that has been conducted in Spanish among low income Latinas, that found that women with inadequate functional health literacy are 16 times less likely to receive a Pap smear test (S.T. Tavafian 2012) It has been illustrated that Individuals beliefs, ethnic background, knowledge about a particular illness are significantly interconnected with the healthcare seeking and health promotional behaviour, Al-Neggar and his colleagues concluded that some misconceptions and wrong beliefs may conduct to the poor practice of cervical cancer screening among women, despite the adequate knowledge regarding the risk factors (Al-Neggar and colleague (2010). One of theoretical models that could be used to identify the determinant of cancer screening and assess the influence of peoples beliefs on their decisions to take up cancer screening is the health belief model. According to the concepts of this model, individuals are more likely to take up screening if they are motivated enough about their health, and they regard themselves as susceptible to develop cancer, believe that effective intervention would be beneficial to reduce the susceptibility and the severity of the condition. Health belief model as a theoretical framework for predicting behaviour The health belief model is one of the theory the most commonly used in health promotion and health education, (chapter 4) it was developed in the early 1950s by a group of social psychologists to explain the widespread failure of people to adopt the disease preventive programs suggested and screening test recommended to detect and prevent the disease at its asymptomatic stage, Later it was applied to study the response of patients to diagnosed disease and their compliance with prescribed medical regimens.(Nancy and colleagues 1984) This model aims to explain the patients thoughts process behind his preventive attitude rather than his behaviour after getting the illness. The underlying concept of the model is that health behaviour and willingness of people to engage in a preventive program or to take up a screening test are determined by personal beliefs and perception of the disease in addition to the different resources available to prevent its occurrence, (chapter 4) The model provides guidelines to develop strategies for effective intervention and implementation by allowing planners to understand the reasons for not compliance with the recommended suggested preventive systems. This model assumes that individuals health behaviour is determined by five psychological factors: perceived susceptibility, perceived seriousness, ref perceived benefits and perceived barriers to effective compliance; cues to put into action, recently, there are others constructs that have been added to the model called modifying or motivating factors such as mass media initiatives, campaign, personal materials, social support, health professional and self-efficacy.(V.Thomas and collegues 2005) Copier le tableau Articulation of cervical cancer screening behaviour to the HBM framework In this section; I will try through the constructs of the Health Belief Model to explain the relationship between womens belief and health behaviour in Algeria Perceived susceptibility: personal risk or susceptibility is referred to the personal belief about the likelihood of contracting a disease (S.T. Tavafian 2012), it is one of the most powerful factor that influence people to adopt a healthy behaviour, the greater the perceived risk, the greater the likelihood of engaging in behaviours to decrease the risk( chapter4). For screening program, woman will be interested to take up a smear test if she is aware enough of the possibility to get cervical cancer by contracting HPV infection, and that she is exposed to this risk as long as she is sexually active. The HBM predicts that women are more likely to comply with cervical cancer screening recommendation if they believe that they have risk factor of cervical cancer (Glanz et and colleagues 2008), and vice versa, the belief of not being at risk for cervical cancer or HPV infection preclude (deter, empeche) women to engage in such program, And this is why most virgin women in Algeria underestimate the necessity( believe the futility) of smear test as they think they are protected from the risk of HPV infection because they are not married. Or in other words , because there is no sexual intercourse, virgin woman does not perceive her vulnerability to cervical cancer, although studies show that HPV has been found in some female virgins, which means that the virus does not always need penetrating sex to be transmitted, And that it may be spread through non penetrating sexual contact; and even within married women, the concept that HPV infection is related to multiple sex partner make them b elieve they are safe from the risk since they have one partner, ignoring the husband sexual behaviour, as many men in Algeria have extramarital sexual relationship underground that the wife unawares, and so she doesnt see herself as susceptible to the risk. Another worrying factor is that youngest women consider cancer to be an elderly disease, while older women according to cervical screening age limit might think that they are no longer at risk ref( V.Thomas 2005), and so there is a wrong perceive of susceptibility. Perceived severity: refers to the seriousness of the disease as assessed by the patient, it is usually based on medical information or personal knowledge from television, radio or leaflets, or it may come from the belief of a person about the consequences that would create a particular disease whatever clinical such as death, disability, or social like family life and social relations (chapter4), (S.T. Tavafian 2012), For screening test, if women believe that cervical neoplasm is a severe disease that would lead to serious difficulties for her and her family, she will view prevention as a priority and so she is more likely to receive a Pap smear test. Also having knowledge about Pap smear test and its importance to detect the invasive disease at early stage will motivate her to receive one, because many women realise the severity of cervical cancer but lack knowledge of screening program, and available service. Despite the recognition that cervical cancer is a serious issue, most of women in Algeria believe that there is no treatment, which make them see screening test as futile and this perhaps reflects the religious beliefs and the cultural background that may influence their attitude, Algeria population as most of Muslims agree that illness, recovery and death are all determined from God, so The majority believe that screening would not prolong their lives and when the time of death comes no one can push it away( K,Salman2011) Another point is that the fear from possibility of identification abnormal cells would necessarily lead to other investigations often influence the willingness of the women to attend, especially when there is no one to watch the children during the screening and the lack of significant support. (chapter4) In Algeria, as in many other Arabic countries, cancer screening is usually recommended for diagnostic purposes rather than being used as a tool for secondary prevention ( K,Salman2011) most of women consider the absence of visible symptoms as a sign of good health hence they do not seek health care unless the disease manifests itself and starts to disable her daily activities, and so the cancer is often diagnosed at its advanced stage. Perceived benefits is about the persons opinion on how much may new behaviour decrease the risk of a particular disease, the HBM predicts that most people have tendency to adopt new behaviour which is seen as a healthy behaviour when they believe the capability of this new behaviour to decrease their risk of developing a disease (Glanz and Colleagues 2008) Perceived benefits play a major role in the adoption of secondary preventive interventions such as screening, for example, if women believe that Pap smear is important for early detection of the precancerous lesions and prevention of cancer that will motivate them to participate in secondary prevention practice by seeking checks up and periodic screening. Therefore women are not expected to engage in any screening program unless they perceive that this program is potentially beneficial to reduce the risk, and so health care providers should explain to the patient the ability of screening test to detect changes in cervix before they develop to cancer, which make treatment easier and prevention effective. Perceived barriers: relate to the individuals vision of the obstacles he will face if he decides to adopt a new behaviour. In order to undertake a recommended behaviour, a person needs to believe that the benefits expected from it outweigh the outcomes of his old behaviour; this enables him to overcome the perceived barriers and to adopt the new behaviour (chapter4) For example, if woman believes that benefits of undergoing a screening test outweigh the obstacles that she may face, she is more likely to obtain Pap test. Previous studies have showed that women who perceived the Pap smear testing as a painful and embarrassing process were less likely to obtain cervical cancer screening, in the same studies women reported many cause that deter them to take the action, such as a negative previous experience, included pain, bleeding, or being faced with inexperienced practitioner who didnt explain the procedure to them during taking the sample, language difficulties was another barrier due the perceive that she will be unable to communicate properly with the health care provider, and to build a trusting relationship. Even those who appreciated the necessity of the screening, the fear of the test process was a great obstacle for them, as most of women find it uncomfortable, and perceive the metal speculum as a painful instrument. (Abdullah 2009) Shyness is another major hindrance that may deter screening process, and It is very common for women to refuse to reveal her body parts to undergo a physical exam or a medical procedures especially when the health provider is a man, and even the discussion about a sensitive health issue like marital relationship, sexual activity and reproductively is regarded as very private, and shouldnt be disclosed to other people , especially men, and even husband may sometimes not be involved in his wifes health issue if it is related to her reproductive organs.( K,Salman2011) Cues to action: are the ensemble of events, things, people that motivate a person to change his behaviour, and this can be mass media such as television, radio, advice from a family or friends, leaflets, information brochure, campaigns, recommendation from health provider,(chapter4) Women are more likely to take up a pap test if she receives enough information about the benefits of the test from her GP or Gynaecologist, if she receives advice from another woman who had the test, if she is encouraged by a member of her family especially the husband or if she knows someone in her entourage with a history of cancer, all those factors are susceptible to reduce the perceived barriers to cancer screening. Perceived self-efficacy: it refers to the belief of the person in his own ability to adopt the behaviour required, because people generally dont engage in doing something unless they believe they are able to achieve it. (Chapter 4) Modifying factors: in addition to what it has been already said, There are other factors that seem to influence the willingness of women to take up the test such as inadequate knowledge about the screening, lack of trusting relationship with the health provide , lack of confidence in the importance of the test, high cost of the test, fear of the result of the test and superstition that talking about cancer would bring it, some stigmata imposed by the community and even sometimes the family that cervical cancer is related to promiscuity, Perception of the Pap smear as a threat for the womans virginity, some fatalistic attitude that illness, recovery and death are relating to gods will and that screening test is futile, Low socioeconomic status, lack of social support, poverty, lack of health insurance (J.Hatcher and colleagues 2011), childhood sexual abuse, obesity, low levels of education, child care, lack of transportation. Cervical cancer screening- promotion interventions based on HBM Today, the HBM is used by many researchers to guideline the development of strategies for effective health intervention, In this section, I will try to summarise some finding from the different interventions based HBM that push me to suggest this model to improve womens behaviour in Algeria. The health belief model has been used by several study, alone or combined with other health promotion models to and to improve belief and behaviours among women regarding the screening program, an example of this study, has been conducted in Iran, in 2010, this study showed that the HBM has formed the basis for an interventional program to improve behaviour among Iranian women,(S.Tavafian2012),The study was conducted with 70 volunteers- aged between 16 and 54 years, and they had never received Pap test, the participants were divided into many small groups, and each group underwent a session of 2 hour training. For the data collection tool, a self-administered multi-choice questionnaire was developed based on the concepts of the HBM. The personal belief and health practice of all the women were assessed pre intervention and four months later, the findings reported that health education based on HBM construct was effective, and could promote the participants knowledge and improve the d ifferent components of the model (perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers).The training program that has been used enhanced the willingness of women to practice the screening test significantly. The study concluded to the fact that education program based on HBM constructs can change womens health beliefs, enhance their knowledge about the cervical cancer and the screening test, and motivate them to adopt a new behaviours. (S.Tavafian2012) Another study in Somali was about an educational programme about the purpose of the screening test, to encourage Somalis to undertake the test. The participants praised the initiative and suggested that such information should be provided in a community setting, because it would help women to perceive the value of the test, and to overcome the different fatalistic barriers to screening. further, Participants suggested improving the awareness of screening among women via mass media: TV, radio, video, DVDs, CDs and audiotapes (Abdullahi , 2009), Health promotion (ACCP 2004)( review the title) There is a lack of information regarding health promotion models that have been used to influence health behaviour among women in Algeria, and even there is no description how the intervention methods were selected, Alliance for Cervical Cancer Prevention (ACCP) consists of five international health organizations who share all the same goal to prevent cervical cancer in limited-resource countries.it aims through its projects to implement an effective prevention strategies to minimise the burden of the cervical cancer .unfortunately ,Algeria has not been included in this initiative, through my review of this manual , I would suggest it as an approach to improve womens health is Algeria and to promote health service delivery. Many method of diagnostic, screening and treatment are currently used. And each of them has strengths and limitations, this method should be reviewed to pick up the most appropriate for the patient, for the screening for example the Pap smear test is the most commonly used, this test requires multiple and regular visit from the client, which can be a barrier for the woman to attend it, The ACCP suggest some alternative approach with better sensitivity and specificity such as Human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA testing, or visual screening, a low cost method with an immediate result. As a health care facility, they suggest to combine the treatment of precancerous lesions to the screening process, and propose some effective and safe methods that should be performed by physician and not physician. These treatment methods allow cure and histological verification at the same time, it has been shown that this initiative was praised by women and providers as well, and it has a great result to lower rate morbidity. The combination of both effective screening approach and treatment would overcome the limitation. Facility womens access to precancer treatment services, through selecting a program to link screening services to precancer treatment services. This would increase the effectiveness and encourage woman to follow up. Achieving widespread screening coverage of the target population by selection of well-organised prevention approach. And this may include the policymakers and authorities who should encourage the investment in cervical cancer prevention Planning an effective prevention intervention: Planning a prevention program requires a coordination between a multidisciplinary management team, that include clinical, administrative, and training specialists. To achieve the programs objective, the team members should follow a participatory process which includes also the perspective of lay people who are concerned by the outcome of this program, and this will allow achieving a high screening coverage with satisfactory result. Improving health services and laboratory infrastructures: delivery services should be accessible, acceptable, affordable, and reliable to satisfy the client and ensure a high coverage of the population target Training: Ensuring Performance to Standard Ensure to qualify a competent staff and health provider, to attract client to use the facilities available and this would happen by training session that enable provider to confidently offer reliable services Providing Information and Counselling to Address Community and Client Needs Women target group should be informed enough the benefits of screening and availability of prevention services to increase the effectiveness of the program, and this could happen by direct contact between woman and health worker or through mass media and campaign, Social network interventions, mailed invitation letter for screening and reminders, information brochure which are very popular to spread information about health topics. It has been stated that direct provider contact is more effective to increase the use of prevention services as the individual counselling will address concerns and emotional need and should be more convincing Overview of screening, treatment and Palliative Care services of cervical cancer Cervical cancer screening services, cervical cancer treatment, and palliative care services should be continuously linked to ensure the effectiveness of the program

Death Of A Salesman :: essays research papers

“Maybe I did not live as I ought to have done, … but how could that be, when I did everything properly?';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I can hear it now, Willy Loman uttering those words as he flips through the pages of his life. In the play, Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller, we witness the deterioration and death of a very well intentioned man. The quote above from Leo Tolstoy’s Ivan Ilych, could not possibly better echo the situation developed in Arthur Miller’s play. The play becomes Willy Loman’s life trial in which he and his family undergo an intense review of their lives. Willy through his confessions searches to find out what went wrong in his life. However, he dies without ever grasping the truth of it all.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Willy Loman is a traveling salesman in his sixties. As we first find him, he is in the beginning of an emotional crisis. His past, recurring to him in realistic flashbacks, is interfering with the present. Each episode draws forth another problem that Willy has to face in his present situation. The problem for Willy was the question that he was asking himself. It is a question that many older individuals ask themselves, “Did I succeed in life, was it all worth it?'; Poor Willy is beginning to realize that he has lived his entire life for the wrong reasons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Willy raised his two sons in all the wrong ways. He encouraged cheating and mocked hard work and true success. Everything in his life was a false standard. Willy’s view of an individual’s success was how well that individual was, “liked.'; He instilled in his children all the wrong values and encouraged all the wrong things. This poor moral installment is typified in this conversation between Willy and his son Biff.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  BIFF: I flunked math dad……. Would you talk to him? He’d like you Pop. You know the way you could talk.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  WIILY: You’re on. We’ll drive right back   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  BIFF: Oh, Dad, good work! I’m sure he’ll change it for you!. See, the reason he hates me, Pop-one day he was late for class so I got up at the blackboard and imitated him. I crossed my eyes and talked with a lithp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  WILLY: laughing: You did? The kids like it? I really found this conversation to show the exact problem that Willy had. He had instilled the worst values in his children and then never sought to correct them.

Just War Theory Essay

The Just War theory consists of 6 rules, which have to be obeyed when fighting at war against another country. The six rules are that war must be a last resort, those who are attacked deserve it, promote good over evil, the right amount of force must be applied, civilian death have to be avoided and the war must be started and controlled by the government. Wars such as the one in Afghanistan, do not in many ways follow this theory. The war does not in any ways promote good over evil and civilian death are never avoided, as many innocent civilians are killed when getting caught in the middle of cross-fires etc. I will conduct a case study on the Iraq war, further on in this essay. If I was able to add one extra agreement to the Just War theory, I would add that violence should always be kept to a minimum. I think this because violence causes the world’s most deaths in society today. This, in my opinion, is completely wrong and unacceptable as people should be able to live in a safe and free society, but this is never possible as you always have to be watching around you, as with some cases, you don’t know actually who to trust. To conduct a case study on the Iraq war, you would need to study the background history leading up to the start of the war in 2002-2003. Tony Blair (ex-prime minister) believed that Iraq were making nuclear weapons to lock themselves in a nuclear arms race, which could have potentially caused devastating consequences for the region and the wider world in general. This accusation caused the British and US forces to move in and declare a war with Iraq. British government believed that Iraq should not be allowed to develop nuclear weapons, and this is why Blair confronted Saddam Hussain (Iraq leader) to try to find out facts, and this ended in Blair declaring war with Iraq. Several years on now, in 2010, we now have a clear understanding that there was never any nuclear weapons out in Iraq, and in my opinion, we are fighting a war which was never ours and we are losing people in our country and society which lives should have never been lost in the first place. Shouldn’t we be only at war to help benefit our country? This is why some people send accusations and believe that Tony Blair is the one to blame for our British soldiers losing their lives out in Iraq. When you come down to think about it, the Just War theory comes into effect at only one point in the Iraq war. ‘War is started and controlled by the government’ comes into effect as the British government started the war and are still controlling it, 8 years after war was declared. The point that was never followed was ‘those who are attacked deserve it’. I believe this because in my opinion, we are in Iraq and we are attacking for no reason, as there is nothing which could benefit our country in any way. The Iraq war also does not promote good over evil, as in my opinion, how can going to war, ever promote good? Wouldn’t going to war be a bad thing and God would be against it? But on the other hand, the good of society would never go to war in the first place; you would only see evil at war. War should be avoided, using whatever ways possible. Â  

THE FIVE KEY TERMS OF DRAMATISM Example

THE FIVE KEY TERMS OF DRAMATISM Example THE FIVE KEY TERMS OF DRAMATISM – Coursework Example Reflection The five key terms of dramatism which are act, scene, agent, agency and purpose are universal theme present in most plays. Usually, when these terms are mentioned, one cannot help but associate them with Shakespearean plays which almost every kid in America and Western world are required to see and write a paper about it. Act suggests what took place or what happened against the backdrop or the scene or the situation it occurred. One can easily remember Hamlet who was consumed by vengeance against the backdrop of his murdered father. Agent is or are the characters that performed the act which in the example stated, is the brother of the older Hamlet which is Claudius who murdered him. The instrument is the object used and may not necessarily be a weapon. But of course in the example stated, it must be a weapon because it was used to murder a person. Modern narrative however does not necessarily follow the template of drama where the key terms are clearly specified. In our case as students, we often see the narrative of documentaries as part of our learning process in the academe. For sure the main purpose of the documentary is to educate more than to entertain. But regardless, it is still story-telling and one is bound to ask if the template of dramas key terms apply to documentaries or it is not really necessary for all the key terms are present. In the example of the documentary stated, there are some terms missing such as object or probably the agent making the template of five key terms not universally applicable in modern narratives.